Faculty of Business and Law Research Day
The Faculty of Business and Law Research Day at Liverpool John Moores University (LJMU) is an opportunity to support doctoral students' scholarly and career development. It provides a supportive and engaging environment to develop research idesa, potential collaborations and future personal career goals. Participants submit a 3-page abstract and poster presentation. The event also includes keynote speakers.
Authors retain copyright and grant the publication right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this publication.
Copyright (c) 2024 Hannah Wilson, Scott Foster, Emanuela Girei https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Right to health, securitisation of migration and standards of immigration detention in South Africa and Australia.
Extended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 2024
Copyright (c) 2024 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Free Markets v Financial Stability; Critically Examining Commercial Private Debt Regulation.
An Exploration of Police Leadership and Culture
Extended abstract from the Faculty of Business and Law Research Day 2024.
The role of corporate social responsibility in poverty alleviation: Case study of Pakistan
The development of punitive damages for marine ecological harm within the People’s Republic of China: Punitive damages with Chinese characteristics
How can UK small businesses utilise social media to increase consumer engagement in a post-COVID19 economy?
Copyright (c) 2024 Victoria McCall https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Holistic Demand driven Hydrogen Supply Chain Design Optimisation
Towards equitable access to justice: understanding access to justice and protecting human rights in the English legal system for vulnerable communities
The value of cultural mega-events: assessing the economic, social, and urban impacts of Trenčín as European capital of culture 2026
Exploring Wellbeing: a Study of the Scottish Hospitality Sector
Exploring how artificial intelligence can be used effectively in student recruitment marketing
Gender Critical Speech, misogyny, and social media: A human rights approach to hate
Gamifying the leaders of tomorrow: How the use of Gamification in HE motivates students in Business and Management education
Exploring the practice of job crafting and its impact on perceived job quality in the NHS, UK.
An investigation into the benefits and challenges of using Olympic sport as a means of empowerment, integration, and advocacy for refugees: Is refugee participation in the Olympics tokenism or sportswashing by the IOC or part of an Olympic movement?
Kindness at work: The impact on employee trust and belonging of working in a psychologically informed environment.
Exploring employee wellbeing and remote work. Developing an organisational framework for healthy hybrid work 2024
Decolonising management knowledge and practice: learning from and with the global south
A critical appraisal of the experiences, barriers and misconceptions which surround the recruitment and employment of prison leavers amongst UK SMEs in the midst of labour shortages
Capitalism and Problems of Law: A Marxist critique of social rights
Building resilience in mothers caring for neurodivergent children: a multi-framework approach using personal resources and self-regulation.
Doctoral research within the faculty is world leading. This is evidenced in the latest Postgraduate Research Experience Survey (2023), where 90 percent of our doctoral researchers, both PhD and DBA, said they are satisfied overall with their doctoral programme, far exceeding national averages. We are passionate about developing a supportive research community, creating a culture for critical thinking and opening opportunities for discussing your research. Through this we hope to enable our candidates to network with others and disseminate their research at successful research conferences. Engaging with this opportunity for candidates is crucial to their doctoral journey as it encourages you to gain a greater clarity on the main argument, or story, you are trying to communicate in your research. To effectively communicate your research to others requires you articulate your research in a focused and engaging manner, which takes practice and critical friends. Our Faculty Doctoral Conferences integrates candidates from across the Faculty of Business and Law and from the DBA and PhD programmes. The opportunity to share your research to a room full of diverse thinkers makes you must really think about how you can best tell your story to people who might not be from your primary research community. However, as this is a doctoral conference, you could say, ‘we are all in it together’, everyone is currently going through the doctoral journey of testing out ideas and practicing how best to communicate ideas. Therefore, this is a supportive community to test out what does and does not work. For this reason, this year our keynote speaker was Dr. Mollie Evens-Bryde, a recent Liverpool Business School PhD graduate. Mollie shared her experience of completing the PhD, the opportunities and challenges that can come with completing a doctorate. Mollie, discussed explicitly about the PhD journey and how it presented numerous challenges, from navigating complex research methodologies to managing time effectively. The conversation from Mollie highlighted the demands sustained in maintaining motivation amidst setbacks and failures; balancing the doctorate and personal life which can be daunting including the pressure to publish and present findings adds to the stress. However, Mollie was delighted with the programme and wished she had spent longer on the programme. Thank you to everyone involved: our doctoral researchers, supervisors, cross-faculty attendees, friends of LJMU, and our doctoral administrators who have worked extremely hard to ensure the day runs as successfully as it possibly can.
Integrated Care System Leadership: A Realist Evaluation
Introduction Health and social care services in England have moved towards a system of partnership working known as Integrated Care Systems (ICSs) consisting of all NHS Provider Trusts, Primary Care Services including GP Practices, Local Authorities, Care Providers, and Voluntary, Community and Social Enterprise organisations involved in the provision of health and social care. As complex systems covering large geographical areas, ICSs are led by senior leaders to improve population health, reduce health inequities, and enhance value for money. Given their recent formation, little is known about their leadership. Available sources are either dated within the academic literature or are described in the grey literature with little reference to theoretical or empirical foundations. This research is intended to contribute to the gap in theoretical and practical knowledge by developing a framework to explain effective leadership in ICSs. Aim, Research Questions, and Objectives 2.1 Aim To evaluate leadership in Cheshire & Merseyside ICS and provide a framework on effective leadership in ICSs. 2.2 Research Question(s) How does ICSs leadership work, for whom, and in what circumstances? What are the activities and behaviour of leadership utilised by senior leaders within an ICS? Which contextual factors influence these activities and behaviours? Which Context-Mechanisms-Outcomes (CMO) configurations explain leadership within an ICS? 2.3 Objectives To identify senior leaders' leadership activities and behaviours in an ICS. To identify the contextual factors that influence the activities and behaviours leaders utilise within an ICS. To utilise context (C), mechanisms (M) and outcome (O) chains to explain what works (outcome), how (mechanisms) and under what conditions (context). To develop a framework that explains effective leadership in ICSs To provide recommendations for practice that support effective leadership of ICSs. Justification & Literature Review Within both the academic and grey literature there is a general agreement that leadership and leadership approaches are critical factors in the ability of organisations to implement, develop, and sustain integrated care; however, despite the whole-scale implementation of this approach to health and social care commissioning and delivery across England limited empirical studies have been conducted. Research in the wider field has focused on the skills, qualities, and abilities of leaders rather than the action and behaviour of leadership, tending to consider who a leader is rather than what they do (Sims et al., 2021, p.13), which limits the ability of ICSs to understand and utilise leadership practices that respond to the complex needs of partnership working across systems. Successful integration requires a combination of strong leadership and governance from senior leaders at the system level across health and social care (Asthana et al., 2020). Furthermore, research examining the functioning of integrated health systems has identified leadership ability as a key factor (Bhat et al., 2022). It has also been suggested that an ICS's operation and sustainability are significantly influenced by a leader's ability to move from an organisation-centred leadership style to one that focuses on leading across multiple organisations (Charles et al., 2018). However, there appears to be an implicit assumption within the literature that senior leaders can apply their existing leadership approach to the newly formed structures and governance of ICSs with limited guidance underpinning the actions or function of leadership styles. Theoretical Foundation Phase 1 (Realist Review) of this study will draw on theories of collective and systems leadership, the results of a realist review, and primary data collection to develop initial theories of effective leadership in ICSs; these will be refined and tested in Phase 2 (Realist Evaluation). The complexity of ICSs alongside an identified lack of theoretical foundations for understanding their leadership, supports the adoption of a realist evaluation (Greenhalgh et al., 2009). Furthermore, given the emerging nature of ICSs, a realist evaluation can go further than asking ‘does it work’ by asking ‘what works, how, in which conditions and for whom’ (Pawson and Tilley, 1997, p.210). Realist research is underpinned by a critical realist ontology; one that takes the position that there is a ‘real’ world that is independent of our experience or interpretation of it. Epistemologically, this research takes a position that focuses on causal explanations which assumes underlying causal processes, termed mechanisms, can have multiple outcomes and that different contexts can precipitate different actions or events. It is concerned with developing and testing 'programme theories'; multiple causal chains describing the context, mechanisms, and outcomes of a particular phenomenon, in this case, leadership within an ICS. Research Design A case study strategy has been selected as it aligns with a realist approach to research and is ‘particularly suited to research questions which require a detailed understanding of the social or organisational processes because of the rich data collected in context’ (Hartley, 2004, p.323). In line with a theory-driven realist approach a multi-method qualitative approach to data collection has been adopted to allow for the richness of contexts and mechanisms to be examined; programme theories will be tested and refined through non-participant observations, document analysis of strategic publications, and interviews with key stakeholders within the ICS. Initial Theories of Effective ICS Leadership (Phase 1 Findings) Table 1: Initial theories of effective ICS leadership utilising Doing Things Differently: Rethinking Leadership Behaviours as an organising framework for theories (NHS North West Leadership Academy, 2021). Delivering Effective Integrated Care System leaders hold themselves and others to account for improving outcomes for the local population. They utilise available intelligence to take actions that support targeting and prioritisation of local communities. Effective Integrated Care System leaders support and encourage learning, curiosity, and calculated risk-taking enabling innovative approaches that lead to service improvements. Being Effective Integrated Care System Leaders communicate a clear vision, fostering a sense of purpose across the system regarding the achievement of agreed Integrated Care System outcomes. Leading & Visioning Effective Integrated Care System leaders have a clear vision that promotes a sense of mutual accountability, providing opportunities for others to develop, make decisions, and take ownership of problem solving through the engagement of all partners in the reduction of health and social care inequalities Relating & Communicating Effective Integrated Care System leaders build relationships at all levels of the system, they promote partnership and collaboration. Leaders encourage a collective agreement about what needs to be achieved and communicate openly about how and why decisions are made Relevance & Contribution This study will provide valuable information to those who work within such systems to help them understand and support leadership development more effectively. Furthermore, this study is expected to contribute to closing the gap in the academic literature regarding the leadership of ICSs by using a novel approach to leadership evaluation; in doing so it will make explicit the underlying causal processes and influencing contexts that shape leadership in ICSs, providing a clear and accessible framework to explain effective leadership practice. References Asthana, S., Gradinger, F., Elston, J., Martin, S. and Byng, R., (2020) Capturing the Role of Context in Complex System Change: An Application of the Canadian Context and Capabilities for Integrating Care (CCIC) Framework to an Integrated Care Organisation in the UK. International Journal of Integrated Care, 201, p.4. Bhat, K., Easwarathasan, R., Jacob, M., Poole, W., Sapaetharan, V., Sidhu, M. and Thomas, A., (2022) Identifying and understanding the factors that influence the functioning of integrated healthcare systems in the NHS: a systematic literature review. BMJ Open, [online] 124. Available at: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049296. Charles, A., Wenzel, L., Kershaw, M., Ham, C. and Walsh, N., (2018) A year of integrated care systems: reviewing the journey so far. The Kings Fund. Deffenbaugh, J., (2018) Becoming an integrated (accountable) care system. British Journal of Healthcare Management, 244, pp.175-180. Erens, B., Wistow, G., Mounier-Jack, S., Douglas, N., Jones, L., Manacorda, T. and Mays, N., (2016) Early evaluation of the Integrated Care and Support Pioneers Programme. Policy Innovation Research Unit, p.183. Evans, J.M., Daub, S., Goldhar, J., Wojtak, A. and Purbhoo, D., (2016) Leading Integrated Health and Social Care Systems: Perspectives from Research and Practice. Healthcare Quarterly, 184, pp.30-35. González-Ortiz, L.G., Calciolari, S., Goodwin, N. and Stein, V., (2018) The Core Dimensions of Integrated Care: A Literature Review to Support the Development of a Comprehensive Framework for Implementing Integrated Care. International Journal of Integrated Care, 183, p.10. Goodwin, N. and Smith, J., (2011) The evidence base for integrated care. [online] Available at: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/audio-video/evidence-base-integrated-care [Accessed 16 Apr. 2022]. Greenhalgh, T., Humphrey, C., Hughes, J., Macfarlane, F., Butler, C. and Pawson, R., (2009) How Do You Modernize a Health Service? A Realist Evaluation of Whole-Scale Transformation in London: Modernizing a Health Service, in London. Milbank Quarterly, 872, pp.391-416. Ham, C., Smith, J. and Eastmure, E., (2011) Commissioning integrated care in a liberated NHS. The Nuffield Trust, p.68. Hartley, J., (2004) Case study research. In: C. Cassell and G. Symon, eds. London: Sage Publications Ltd, pp.323-333. Maruthappu, M., Hasan, A. and Zeltner, T., (2015) Enablers and Barriers in Implementing Integrated Care. Health Systems & Reform, 14, pp.250-256. NHS North West Leadership Academy, (2021) Doing Things Differently: Rethinking Leadership Behaviours. [online] Available at: https://www.nwacademy.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/resource_files/System%20Leadership%20Behaviours_Indicators.pdf [Accessed 21 Nov. 2022]. Pawson, R. and Tilley, N., (1997) Realistic evaluation. London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage. Sims, S., Fletcher, S., Brearley, S., Ross, F., Manthorpe, J. and Harris, R., (2021) What does Success Look Like for Leaders of Integrated Health and Social Care Systems? a Realist Review. International Journal of Integrated Care, 214, p.26. Tweed, A., Singfield, A., Taylor, J.R.A., Gilbert, L. and Mount, P., (2018) Creating allegiance: leading transformational change within the NHS. BMJ Leader, 23, pp.110-114. Wistow, G., Gaskins, M., Holder, H. and Smith, J., (2016) Why Implementing Integrated Care is so much harder than designing it: experience in North West London. England. International Journal of Integrated Care, 166, p.308.
Exploring employee wellbeing and remote work. Developing an organisational framework for healthy hybrid work.
Introduction Following the Covid-19 pandemic and subsequent demand for ongoing remote work (Alexander et al, 2021; Taneja et al, 2021; Chung et al, 2020) hybrid forms of work are predicted to become a core feature of the global labour market (Microsoft, 2022; Bloom et al 2021). In January 2023, 28% of UK employees were working in a hybrid way (ONS, 2023); a CIPD (2023) report found 83% of organisations were offering hybrid work. In contrast, prior to the pandemic, less than 5% of UK employees worked mainly from home; in the 40 years prior to 2020 remote work had grown by only three percentage points (Felstead and Reuschke (2021). The outcomes of hybrid work, on both organisations and employees, are unknown. The extant literature on remote work draws predominantly from a time when remote work was undertaken by the minority, limited to specific job roles and industries, or from during the pandemic when homeworking was involuntary. Existing research has been described as ‘fragmented and variable’ (Athanasiadou and Theriou, 2021). To date, studies have not been undertaken at a scale that would enable extrapolation to generally applicable conclusions, limiting the potential for the provision of practical advice for employees or managers (Messenger, 2019). Wellbeing outcomes of remote work, including the impact on physical and mental health (Lundberg and Lindfords, 2002; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003), the impact of remote work technologies (Gualano et al, 2023) and the demands of remote work and their impact (Ter Hoeven and Van Zoonen, 2015), are acknowledged research gaps. Literature Four out of five organisations who intend to offer opportunities for hybrid work post pandemic include the potential to improve employee wellbeing as a key consideration (ONS, 2022). However, the relationship between remote work and wellbeing is complex and the extant evidence contradictory. It is not possible to state conclusively whether employee wellbeing is positively or negatively influenced by remote work. Research has established remote work has the potential to have both positive and negative effects (Wohrman and Ebner, 2021); for example, remote work has been found to reduce stress levels (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007) as well as increase them (Arvola and Kristjuhan, 2015). Overall, it is suggested remote work does have a net benefit on employee health, improving it more than damaging it (Crawford, 2022), attributed in part to its capacity to provide increased autonomy and control (Taveres, 2017). Remote work is generally considered ‘more good than bad for individuals’ (Gajendran and Harrison, 2007), however it cannot be inferred that it will result in wellbeing benefits for all remote workers (Anderson and Kaplan, 2014). Research Objectives There is a lack of knowledge about the health and wellbeing outcomes of hybrid work as well as the factors which might influence such outcomes. Furthermore, there is a lack of evidence-based guidance for organisations in respect of supporting wellbeing in hybrid work. This study therefore aims to: Develop a detailed understanding of the positive and negative impacts of hybrid forms of remote work on employee wellbeing as identified by previous research. Explore the perspectives of employees undertaking hybrid work and its influence on their subjective wellbeing, determining the factors that influence hybrid worker wellbeing outcomes. Develop an understanding of how organisations are supporting the wellbeing of hybrid workers and the effectiveness of these approaches. Create a framework that can be utilised by organisations to ensure that hybrid work is healthy. Research Methods This study will adopt a pragmatic philosophy, utilising a mixed-method approach. Phase one will consist of a qualitative and quantitative survey of hybrid workers which will be analysed thematically. Phase two will consist of semi-structured interviews with senior HR professionals whose organisations undertake hybrid work. Results will be triangulated to test the efficacy and usability of the framework, a validation of which will take place with a group of senior HR leaders. Practical importance of the study This study will advance knowledge on the issue of employee wellbeing and hybrid work in a future of work where remote work is taking place at scale. The development of the framework will enable organisations to both manage and mitigate the potential for negative impacts upon employee wellbeing, providing both insight and opportunities for action. References Alexander, A., De Smet, A., Langstaff, M. and Ravid, D., 2021. What employees are saying about the future of remote work. McKinsey & Company. Almarcha, M., Balagué, N. and Torrents, C., 2021. Healthy teleworking: towards personalized exercise recommendations. Sustainability, 13(6), p.3192. Anderson, A.J., Kaplan, S.A. and Vega, R.P. (2015) The impact of telework on emotional experience: When, and for whom, does telework improve daily affective well-being?, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(6), pp.882-897. Arvola, R. and Kristjuhan, Ü. (2015) Workload and health of older academic personnel using telework, Agronomy Research, 13(3), pp.741-749. Athanasiadou, C. and Theriou, G. (2021) Telework: Systematic literature review and future research agenda. Heliyon, 7(10), p.e08165. Bloom, N., Han, R. and Liang, J., 2022. How hybrid working from home works out (No. w30292). National Bureau of Economic Research. CIPD (2023) Flexible and hybrid working practices in 2023, employer and employee perspectives, Available at: https://www.cipd.org/globalassets/media/knowledge/knowledge-hub/reports/2023-pdfs/2023-flexible-hybrid-working-practices-report-8392.pdf [Accessed 24th August 2023] Chung, H., Seo, H., Forbes, S. and Birkett, H., 2020. Working from home during the COVID-19 lockdown: Changing preferences and the future of work. Crawford, J. (2022) Working from home, telework, and psychological wellbeing? A systematic review, Sustainability, 14(19), p.11874. Felstead, A. and Reuschke, D., 2021. A flash in the pan or a permanent change? The growth of homeworking during the pandemic and its effect on employee productivity in the UK. Information Technology & People. Gajendran, R.S. and Harrison, D.A. (2007) The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences, Journal of applied psychology, 92(6), p.1524. Gualano, M.R., Santoro, P.E., Borrelli, I., Rossi, M.F., Amantea, C., Daniele, A. and Moscato, U. (2023) TElewoRk-RelAted stress (TERRA), psychological and physical strain of working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review, Workplace Health & Safety, 71(2), pp.58-67. Lundberg, U. and Lindfors, P. (2002) Psychophysiological reactions to telework in female and male white-collar workers, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(4), p.354. Mann, S. and Holdsworth, L., 2003. The psychological impact of teleworking: stress, emotions and health. New Technology, Work and Employment, 18(3), pp.196-211. Messenger, J., 2019. Telework in the 21st Century, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham Microsoft (2022) ‘Hybrid work is just work. Are we doing it wrong? Work Trend Index: Pulse Report’. Microsoft, Available at: https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/worklab/work-trend-index/hybrid-work-is-just-work?utm_source=pocket_mylist [Accessed 29 September 2022] Office of National Statistics (2022), Is hybrid working here to stay? Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/articles/ishybridworkingheretostay/2022-05-23 [Accessed 28th August 2023] Office of National Statistics (203), Characteristics of homeworkers Great Britain: September 2022-January 2023 Available at: Characteristics of homeworkers, Great Britain - Office for National Statistics (ons.gov.uk) Accessed 28th August 2023 Taneja, S., Mizen, P. and Bloom, N., 2021. Working from home is revolutionising the UK labour market. Tavares, A.I. (2017) Telework and health effects review, International Journal of Healthcare, 3(2), pp.30-36. Ter Hoeven, C.L. and Van Zoonen, W. (2015) Flexible work designs and employee well‐being: Examining the effects of resources and demands, New Technology, Work and Employment, 30(3),pp.237-255. Wöhrmann, A.M. and Ebner, C. (2021) Understanding the bright side and the dark side of telework: An empirical analysis of working conditions and psychosomatic health complaints, New Technology, Work and Employment, 36(3), pp.348-370.
Culture and leader-follower relationships in policing
Introduction The financial year 2022-2023 saw the highest number of voluntary police leavers overall and as a proportion of the workforce since records began in 2003 (The Home Office, 2023). Despite initiatives to improve matters, research of police leavers continues to highlight poor leadership as a dominant influence upon the decision to resign (Charman and Bennett, 2022). Including a perceived lack of support, autonomy, and voice in leavers relationships with leaders. This study seeks to contribute to addressing this situation through examining the link between police culture and leader-follower relationships. Consequently, it is relevant to police personnel, but also to the myriad of organisations, Government bodies and regulators associated with policing today. Many of which have been involved in the multiple reviews over the last decade which have advocated for the transformation of police leadership toward more participative modes. Literature Review Leader Member Exchange (LMX) is theory of leader-follower relations predicated upon long term relationships in which the socioemotional exchange and the associated perception of obligation and reciprocation are ongoing processes (Shore et al., 2006). High quality LMX relationships are characterised by greater degrees of mutual influence, reward, engagement, trust, communication, commitment, support, and respect (Bauer and Green, 1996). Given the link between police leadership and the decision to quit it is important to observe the interplay of LMX, organisational commitment and procedural injustice. In high quality LMX relationships the leader encourages employee commitment to the organisation (Graen, 1976) through frequent interactions and development opportunities, whilst high quality LMX is also proposed to result in a higher perception of procedural justice (Dulebohn et al., 2012). Follower and leader characteristics, and context will influence LMX quality (Dulebohn et al., 2012). Individuals will generally show greater attraction toward those with whom they are similar (Byrne, 1971). Including in respect of their interests, attitudes, and values. Which in the work context may encompass facets of the organisation’s culture (van Breukelen, Schyns and le Blanc, 2006). LMX consensus will be higher in organisational cultures associated with supportive leadership (Tordera et al., 2008). Further, organisational culture influences the development of trust in relationships through shared values (Farnese, Benevene and Barbieri, 2022) which are also aspects of high quality LMX relationships (Markham et al., 2010). The concept of police culture concerns the norms, values and beliefs shared by policing practitioners (Bacon, 2022). Including the wealth of knowledge and experience upon which practitioners draw and interpret in their daily lives when dealing with the unique challenges presented by their roles (Cockcroft, 2020). The central tenets of police culture including the possession of specific values, the importance of identity, the meaning ascribed to police work and an action orientation; coupled with characteristics of pragmatism, solidarity, cynicism, mission focus, machismo, and conservatism (Caveney et al., 2020). Classical approaches emphasising adherence to hierarchy, discipline, command and control ethos (Myhill and Bradford, 2013). In addition to the strong in-group mentality and internal solidarity expected of police personnel (Myhill and Bradford, 2013) which include suspicions of leadership and their ability to deliver positive change in the organisation (Villiers, 2003). All of which will have significant influence on leader-follower relationships. Whilst the prevalence of these characteristics continues to be recognised, greater subtlety has emerged in academic and professional discourse as understanding of the influences on culture develops (Caveney et al., 2020). Particularly in respect of the individual differences between practitioners and the consequences of these for behaviour (Ingram et al., 2013). Such that previous simple depictions of police culture are increasingly superseded by more complex and contingent conceptualisations (Caveney et al., 2020). Including recognition of the social, organisational, political, and technological factors which will influence the culture of a policing organisation and their dynamism (Reiner, 2015). Given the link between organisational culture and LMX, the author proposes that the culture a police professional experiences in their working environment is a function of the overall culture of policing, the unique culture of the specific police force in which they work and the subculture(s) of their individual division, unit and/or team. These are mutually influencing, as well as collectively and individually influenced by the wide range of factors exerting forces upon culture. In turn, each of these cultural facets will manifest in their own distinctive values, norms, and discourse. Though there may be commonalities between them given their inter-dependency. Collectively, these cultures will influence the development and quality of leader-follower exchange relationships, though individual and contextual factors will also play their part. Research Question, Aims & Objectives Given the interplay of leader-follower relationships, leadership in policing and organisational cultures, this project will seek to answer the following research question: From the perspective of practitioners, what factors influence leader-follower relationships in the policing context? This research project therefore aims to explore leader-follower interactions in the policing context through developing understanding as to the influences upon these. Consequently, the project seeks to achieve the following objectives: To engage police practitioners in the exploration of their in-work relationships with colleagues across the rank, role, and specialisation structures. To explore the potential existence of themes amongst influences upon interpersonal relationships, including the extent to which these may have a positive or negative impact. Contribution To Knowledge & Professional Practice This is potentially the first research project to explore influences upon interpersonal relationships in policing, including the potential consequences of police culture upon the dynamics of engagement between leaders and followers. Any recommendations arising from this research therefore have the potential to address, at least in part, the challenges identified by Charman and Bennett (2022) in respect of perceived organisational injustice. Through their incorporation into leadership development programmes and wider professional guidance. Whilst also recognising the importance of leadership development for all which conceptualises leadership as a process encompassing all parties to the relationship (Day et al., 2021). In addition to generating conversation and reflection amongst police practitioners in respect of their interactions. Increasing the likelihood of the benefits of enhanced interpersonal relationships being more widely realised in policing, including improving retention. Further, the study seeks to potentially contribute to the fields of police and leadership studies in three areas. Firstly, responding to the recognition by Oc et al. (2023), amongst others, that it is necessary to examine both sides of the leader-follower dyad to gain a holistic understanding of leadership. Particularly when investigating themes integral to this research proposal, including interactions, exchanges and reciprocity between leaders and followers, and the characteristics of dyadic relationships (Kim et al., 2020). Secondly, Oc et al. (2023) recognise limited attention in empirical work to specific follower characteristics and their influence on relationships with leaders. Particularly follower behaviours and group interactions. Given that both aspects are significantly influenced by organisational and/or occupational culture (Schein, 1997), this research therefore has the potential to expand understanding of their influence on leader-follower relationships. Finally, this study aspires to extend the work of Charman and Bennett (2022) in relation to perceptions of organisational justice in policing, particularly in respect to the behaviour of leaders. Methods This two stage multi-method qualitative study will engage participants from two police forces in virtual semi-structured interviews and focus groups to explore their experiences of and perspectives on police leadership and culture. Participants will be drawn from across the ranks, roles, and divisions of each force. The results will be thematically analysed between phases one and two, to inform the latter which will include the generation of ideas for future leadership development initiatives. References Bacon, M. (2022) Desistance from criminalisation: police culture and new directions in drugs policing. Policing and Society, 324, pp.522–539. Bauer, T.N. and Green, S.G. (1996) Development of a Leader-member exchange: a longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal, 396, pp.1538–1567. van Breukelen, W., Schyns, B. and Le Blanc, P. (2006) Leader-member exchange theory and research: accomplishments and future challenges. Leadership, 23, pp.295–316. Caveney, N., Scott, P., Williams, S. and Howe-Walsh, L. (2020) Police reform, austerity and ‘cop culture’: time to change the record? Policing and Society, 3010, pp.1210–1225. Charman, S. and Bennett, S. (2022) Voluntary resignations from the police service: the impact of organisational and occupational stressors on organisational commitment. Policing and Society, 322, pp.159–178. Cockcroft, T. (2020) Police Occupational Culture. Bristol: Policy Press. Day, D. V., Riggio, R.E., Tan, S.J. and Conger, J.A. (2021) Advancing the science of 21st-century leadership development: Theory, research, and practice. The Leadership Quarterly, 325, p.101557. Dulebohn, J.H., Bommer, W.H., Liden, R.C., Brouer, R.L. and Ferris, G.R. (2012) A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 386, pp.1715–1759. Farnese, M.L., Benevene, P. and Barbieri, B. (2022) Learning to trust in social enterprises: The contribution of organisational culture to trust dynamics. Journal of Trust Research, 122, pp.153–178. Graen, G., (1976) Role making processes within complex organizations. In: M.D. Dunnette, ed., Handbook in industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand Mcnally, pp.1201–1245. Kim, J., Yammarino, F.J., Dionne, S.D., Eckardt, R., Cheong, M., Tsai, C.-Y., Guo, J. and Park, J.W. (2020) State-of-the-science review of leader-follower dyads research. The Leadership Quarterly, 311, p.101306. Markham, S.E., Yammarino, F.J., Murry, W.D. and Palanski, M.E. (2010) Leader–member exchange, shared values, and performance: Agreement and levels of analysis do matter. The Leadership Quarterly, 213, pp.469–480. Myhill, A. and Bradford, B., (2013) Overcoming cop culture? Organizational justice and police officers’ attitudes toward the public. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 362, pp.338–356. Oc, B., Chintakananda, K., Bashshur, M.R. and Day, D. V. (2023) The study of followers in leadership research: A systematic and critical review. The Leadership Quarterly, 341, p.101674. Reiner, R. (2015) Revisiting the Classics: Three Seminal Founders of the Study of Policing: Michael Banton, Jerome Skolnick and Egon Bittner. Policing and Society, 253, pp.308–327. Scandura, T.A. and Pellegrini, E.K. (2008) Trust and Leader—Member Exchange. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 152, pp.101–110. Schein, E. (1997) Organizational Culture & Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Schyns, B. and Day, D. (2010) Critique and review of leader–member exchange theory: Issues of agreement, consensus, and excellence. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 191, pp.1–29. Shore, L.M., Tetrick, L.E., Lynch, P. and Barksdale, K., (2006) Social and economic exchange: construct development and validation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 364, pp.837–867. Tordera, N., González-Romá, V. and Peiró, J.M. (2008) The moderator effect of psychological climate on the relationship between leader – member exchange (LMX) quality and role overload. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 171, pp.55–72. Villiers, P. (2003) Philosophy, doctrine, and leadership: some core beliefs. In: R. Adlam and P. Villiers, eds., Police Leadership in the 21st Century. Winchester: Waterside Press, pp.15–33.
Why did it happen to me? Reflecting on overcoming the inevitable doctoral journey speed-bumps
Introduction Whilst the main objective in undertaking a Doctorate in Business Administration (DBA) is to conduct research, another key component is to critically reflect on the journey the researcher has gone on. For a researcher enrolled onto a DBA, there is ample opportunity to write, present and conduct research, notably on the topic that is being researched. However, for critical reflection, it can often be seen as a challenge amongst peers (Fook and Gardner, 2007). It is sometimes seen as an end goal or a finalisation of the doctoral research process. Whilst it is encouraged to practice reflection throughout the experience whether writing a journal or note taking following supervision (Williams et al., 2012), it can be argued that there is no defined opportune time to demonstrate reflection, in a safe environment, within academia to practice the outcomes of reflection. Using this conference as a time to take check on the journey so far, apply reflection and to present the findings, can put the researcher in a vulnerable position. However, it also ensures a safe place to prepare for the final part of the DBA whilst being able to apply and demonstrate the tools and techniques expected in the final chapter of the thesis. This extended abstract provides a brief overview of how reflection is applied in research, considers two reflective models in Gibbs (1988) and Kolb (1984) and applies one based on the 18 months of the researchers DBA journey. However, the element of critical reflection, when considering the development of practice following reflection (Høyrup, 2004) will be omitted until the completion of the DBA research when the data analysis and discussion has been concluded. The Application of reflection in research The origins of reflective practice are often disputed due to its application in varying disciplines and a person’s perspective (Hickson, 2011). However, many academics appear to conclude that work from Dewey (1910) and later developed further by Schön (1983) is where reflection had cemented its place as a concept (Fook and Gardner, 2007; Johns, 2005). Although, it is argued Schön’s work has been seen to be only seminal work and that reflective practice is yet to be underpinned as a truly defined practice (Kinsella, 2009). Irrespective of origin and definition, it can be concluded that, traditionally, reflective practice had been seen as a theoretical concept. Whilst it provided clarity on what it means, it could be argued that it provided little direction when it comes to application. As such, models have been developed to allow people to apply reflection from their learning. A model of note is Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle (1984). The cycle highlights the need of fully immersing oneself in new experiences, reflecting on them from many angles, drawing concepts and lessons from the reflections, and using these lessons to inform future experiences for meaningful learning to take place (McLeod, 2017). Other models have evolved from Kolb’s input. Gibb’s Reflective Cycle (1988) sought to bring more structure to reflective practice following Kolb’s model with the introduction of more stages. It also permits introspection during an event (reflection-in-action) as well as following it (reflection-on-action) whereas Schön (1984) gave more attention to the latter. As such, this extended abstract adopts Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle (1988) and follows a first person perspective. Applying Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle (1988) 3.1. Description Undertaking the DBA is a new experience for me. It is the first time I have worked academically at Level 8 which is required should I wish to pursue career progression both as a researcher or in management. The scholarly-practitioner ethos of a DBA placed this opportunity well for the progression avenues available to me in the future. 3.2. Feelings I was excited to do the DBA and the excitement is still there. However, having been fixated from my idea early on in my journey left room for frustrations should any barriers occur, that would derail or halt any progress towards my self-imposed deadline for completion. When progress was good, I didn’t, and still don’t, see this as a celebration but more if “I am doing this right”. Thoughts like this are regular for me and my reflective blog often has the theme of “imposter syndrome” in play. This did start to ease off but then challenges regarding my data analysis methods had brought this back and had me questioning my pace of completion and therefore again me thinking “am I doing this right?” coming back into my mind. 3.3. Evaluation I consider myself an open person, often seeking for help should barriers occur, and I am no different in the DBA. I am often praised for my progress and topic idea, but I have never been one to take this praise on board and dismiss it as expected in my role of scholarly-practitioner and seeking what is next to be done for my progress. This can manifest into stress if a “speed-bump” appears in the journey. I talk down stress with humour as a coping mechanism and this is a key standout in my reflective blog though my attempt as being light-hearted in my narrative and use of meme to visualise my thoughts. 3.4. Analysis The route cause to many of my frustrations at being “derailed” stem from my self-imposed deadline for completion. I have always been someone to get tasks completed early to allow time for revision and reflection. However, the latter rarely occurs. I require a clear structure and plan end to end and have been guilty as seeing my DBA as another project as opposed to a new venture into research. Framing this as, indeed a journey, and not another tick in the box will relieve any stresses of barriers and see them as lessons learnt and considerations for the future. 3.5. Conclusion I need to reign in my own expectations but also appreciate that I am open to feedback that has started to allow me to re-frame the critical incidents that have occurred in my DBA so far. I also need to take this reflection as a critical incident in giving me a reality check into celebrating my progress and to remain excited about what is to come. 3.6. Action Plan I will be taking the opportunity to reflect in more than just the DBA to form the habit as this experience has shown me the value in it, mostly for my mindset. As my data and analysis discussion develops, I need to start taking my reflection and evolving it to critical reflection and defining the impact my research is having on practice to remove the “imposter syndrome” and wear the label of Level 8 with pride and appreciation that I am at the level I expect to be at. Reflecting on reflecting Allowing the time to reflect has given me the opportunity to take a step back and evaluate the mid-way point of my DBA journey. I started a reflective blog at the start of my DBA but only seen it as a diary. It was only when I analysed the content that I started to see the pattern I was setting myself up for; being keen and excited, but rigid in my approach and stressing about any barriers that came my way and reverting to “I am not doing this right”. Yet, all the barriers so far have been overcome and resulted with better clarity of my research. Gibb’s Reflective Cycle (1988) provided me with the structural comfort I like but gave me the prompts to go further and provide me a mechanism that is starting to challenge my default negative view of barriers and see them as pieces being put together. These pieces form a cohesive reflection of where I am now and where I plan to get to with the occasional reminder that “speed-bumps” happen and overcoming them is only beneficial and doesn’t mean “I am wrong”. References Dewey, J., (1910), How we think, Boston: DC Heath Fook, J., & Gardner, F., (2007), Practicing critical reflection: A resource handbook, London: Open University Press. Ghaye, T., (2010), Teaching and learning through reflective practice: A practical guide for positive action, Routledge. Gibbs, G., (1988), Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods, Oxford: Oxford Further Education Unit. Hickson, H., (2011) Critical reflection: Reflecting on learning to be reflective, Reflective practice, 12(6), pp.829-839. Høyrup, S., (2004), Reflection as a core process in organisational learning, Journal of workplace learning, 16(8), pp.442-454. Johns, C., (2005), Balancing the winds, Reflective Practice, 6(1), pp.67-84. Kinsella, E. A., (2009), Professional knowledge and the epistemology of professional practice, Nursing Philosophy, 11, pp.3-14. Kolb, D. A., (1984), Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. McLeod, S., (2017), Kolb's learning styles and experiential learning cycle, (online), available at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html, Accessed: 02/11/2023. Schön, D., (1983), The reflective practitioner - How professionals think in action, New York: Basic Books. Williams, K., Woolliams, M. & Spiro, J., (2020), Reflective writing, Bloomsbury Publishing.
Background. Tens of thousands of people are detained globally for reasons related to their immigration status.[1] Some states view immigration detention as a mechanism deterring irregular migrants seeking refuge or attempting an application for asylum, and respond by routinely, rather than exceptionally, detaining them,[2] ignoring the broad recognition that immigration detention is inherently harmful to the health and general well-being of those detained.[1] This transnational doctoral research concerns the comparative socio-legal assessment of the right to health and humane standards of detention of immigration detainees in two countries which experience an influx of migrants, refugees and asylum seekers; one classed as an upper middle-class country on the Development Assistance Committee List of Official Development Assistance Recipients (South Africa) and the other classed as highly developed (Australia).[3] It further aims to investigate the extent to which these two vastly different jurisdictions uphold the rule of law in the context of international human rights law pertaining to the right to health and standards of immigration detention, and the relative efficacy of international human rights instruments to hold offending jurisdictions accountable. Focus, aim and approach. The study is broadly balanced against South African and Australian immigration detention regulations, through an international human rights law lens whilst considering the actual conditions and treatment of immigrant detainees, with an explicit focus on the right to health. A pragmatist account based on a triangulated (across methods and sources) ‘rule of law’ lens will be created, examining the extent to which South Africa and Australia comply with minimum State obligations to respect human rights norms as it relates to right to health (including access to medical care) and provision of normative standards of immigration detention. The generated narrative will be cognizant of the changing contextual forces of migration into South Africa and Australia, securitization agendas and violations of basic human rights and due process, and additionally, will illustrate various gaps in due process, policy and practice in the application of domestic laws, policies and standards of care. It will also highlight various routes to strategic public litigation, advocacy channels and reforms. The study will garner insights into the most effective means of advocating for change, achieving reforms, informing policies, protocols and detention standard operating procedures, ultimately advancing the rights of those in immigration detention. Country narratives. South Africa has long been an important destination for migrants from its neighbouring countries and Asia.[4] Migration and cross border movements are increasingly viewed politically and societally using a ‘lens of national security, social instability, and criminality’[5], with rising anti-immigrant sentiment amongst citizens.[6] Despite South Africa’s domestic legislation providing for specific conditions in detention, observers have regularly raised concerns regarding violations of these provisions including overcrowding, inadequate access to health care services, poor nutrition, and the detention of migrants, refugees, and asylum seekers alongside those on remand or sentenced.[7] Excessive use of force by authorities and limited access to legal representation have repeatedly been noted.[7] In contrast, Australia experiences migration from as far as Sudan, Afghanistan and Iraq,[8] despite its geographical isolation.[9] It is also experiencing increased anti-immigrant sentiment and securitisation agendas,[10] and maintains an immigration detention system which is infamous for being punitive and arbitrary, with a policy of mandatory, indefinite detention and no judicial review of decisions to detain.[9] The lack of consideration of necessity, reasonableness, proportionality and review of a person’s individual needs and vulnerabilities results in detention of vulnerable groups e.g. children and survivors of torture and trauma. There are few normative regulations in place regarding the provision of healthcare, or other special arrangements for vulnerable groups in places of immigration detention, and no measures to reduce the length of detention for vulnerable persons and persons with disabilities.[9] Preliminary results. Both South Africa’s and Australia’s immigration policies and detention sites, including police cells, proposed border camps [6] and offshore immigration detention facilities [9] have been sharply criticised by various international human rights bodies (e.g. (UN)CESCR, (UN)CAT, UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention). Various international human rights bodies condemned South Africa’s immigration policies and detention sites, inter alia privately operated Lindela Repatriation Centre, police cells and prisons.[4, 6, 7] Conditions are not fit for purpose and continue to fall short of the minimum standards of care.[4] No routine immigration detention surveillance exists in South Africa, and despite having ratified the Optional Protocol to the UN Convention Against Torture (OP-CAT), it is still to implement necessary legislative measures for setting up a National Preventive Mechanism (NPM) (a critical detention monitoring body) to regularly examine closed settings. In comparison, Australia brings together a variety of extreme immigration policies in its immigration detention regime, provides them blanket legal cover and aggressively defends them in the wake of international critique.[9] Refugees are arbitrarily detained in inhumane conditions, lack adequate health care, and experience severe pain and suffering that rises to the level of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or torture.[11] As of January 2022, Australia had failed to establish an NPM in each of its territories as required by the OP-CAT, which it ratified in 2017, with the UN’s Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture cancelling their oversight visit to Australia in 2023 due to them being refused entry into some detention centres.[9, 11] Contribution and implication. No known study has been conducted in the area of dissecting and analysing these two African- and Asia-Pacific immigration detention systems and standards of detention, triangulated against the three levels of State obligations i.e., respect, protect and fulfil.[12] The work will likely contribute strongly to sensitization around the rights of immigration detainees and is intended to contribute to immigration detention reforms in both countries through publications, sharing of evidence with respective governments, country level NPMs under the OP-CAT protocol, and humanitarian and human rights advocacy organisations operating in the respective countries. Conclusion. A country’s socio-economic status is not determinant of immigration detention conditions and State parties’ ability / willingness to ‘respect, protect and fulfil’ immigration detainees’ health (and basic human) rights. In the context of right to health and immigration detention, both countries may be in breach of international human rights law, and both Australia and South Africa need policy and legislative reform, as well as the political will to effect implementation. The study will progress to include qualitative data collection (in-depth interviews) and analysis of stakeholders’ socio-cultural understanding of migration forces into South Africa and Australia, gaps in laws, policies, due process and rights assurances, standards of care (including access to and quality of healthcare) and the health profile of people in immigration detention. If possible, a convenience sample of former immigration detainees are to be interviewed about their experiences of immigration detention and their health. This socio- legal assessment will subsequently triangulate and evaluate the indeterminate nature of South African and Australian immigration and refugee regulations, policies and operating procedures in relation to human rights, obligations of the State to uphold the right to health of immigration detainees and normative standards of detention. References.[1] Global Detention Project (2022) Annual Report: Building Partnerships, Harnessing Data, EndingArbitrary Immigration Detention [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/2022-annual-report-building-partnerships-harnessing-data-ending-arbitrary-immigration-detention [Accessed: 18 August 2023][2] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2014) 2014-2019 Beyond Detention - A GlobalStrategy to support governments to end the detention of asylum-seekers and refugees [online]Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/media/beyond-detention-global-strategy-support-governmentsend-detention-asylum-seekers-and [Accessed 18: October 2023][3] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2023) DAC List of ODA Recipients |Effective for reporting on 2022 and 2023 flows [online] Available at DAC-List-of-ODA-Recipients-for-reporting-2022-23-flows.pdf (oecd.org) [Accessed: 02 November 2023][4] Van Hout, M.C. & Wessels, J. (2023) #ForeignersMustGo versus “in favorem libertatis”: Humanrights violations and procedural irregularities in South African immigration detention law. Journal ofHuman Rights [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835.2023.2170709 [Accessed: 24April 2023].[5] Ncube, M. (2017) South Africa Steps up Deportation of Asylum Seekers. News Deeply [online]Available at: https://www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/articles/2017/10/17/south-africa-stepsupdeportation-of-asylum-seekers [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[6] Global Detention Project (2021). Immigration Detention in South Africa: Stricter Control ofAdministrative Detention, Increasing Criminal Enforcement of Migration [online] Available at:www.globaldetentionproject.org/immigration-detention-in-south-africa-stricter-control-of-administrative-detention-increasing-criminal-enforcement-of-migration [Accessed: 29 August 2022].[7] Lawyers for Human Rights (2020) Monitoring Policy, Litigious and Legislative Shifts inImmigration Detention in South Africa [online] Available at: https://www.lhr.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Detention-Report-Final-Final-Digital-1.pdf [Accessed: 31 October 2023][8] Australian Home Affairs (2023) Immigration detention statistics [online] Available at:https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/immigration-detention-statistics-28-february-2023.pdf [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[9] Global Detention Project (2022) Immigration Detention in Australia: Turning Arbitrary Detentioninto a Global Brand [online] Available at: https://www.globaldetentionproject.org/countries/asiapacific/australia [Accessed: 17 April 2023].[10] Ibekwe, S. O. (2022) Preventing people from risking their lives at sea’: Forced migration and thesecuritization of asylum seekers in Australia. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics [online]Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911211032514 [Accessed: 02 November 2023][11] Barnes, J. (2022) Suffering to Save Lives: Torture, Cruelty, and Moral Disengagement inAustralia’s Offshore Detention Centres [online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feac041 [Accessed 30 October 2023][12] United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2000) General Comment No.14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12 of the Covenant), 11 August2000, E/C.12/2000/4 [online] Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d0.html [Accessed: 24 April 2023]
Exploring the relationship between conservation of resources and regulatory mode in self-regulation: A qualitative study of mothers caring for children with long-term care needs
Purpose: This research aims to explore the relationship between regulatory mode and conservation of resources (COR) within the context of self-regulation. It seeks to understand how an individual's assessment or locomotion tendencies and their resource situation interact with and influence each other. Study design/methodology/approach: A qualitative study was conducted using an interpretivist approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 mothers caring for children with long-term needs. The interviews were analysed using NVivo and Excel to identify themes and evidence related to the research questions. Findings: For the participant group of mothers, the findings indicate a direct link between assessment and locomotion tendencies, and their resource caravan or reservoirs. Those with locomotion tendencies were more likely to have a strong or positive resource caravan, whereas those with mixed assessment and locomotion tendencies had a limited resource caravan. Five resource groupings or caravans were identified, with positive mindfulness, positive psychology, and time emerging as predominant weak resources, and physical, cognitive, social, and financial resources as dominant positive resources. The study also found a direct link between current resource caravans and positive or negative resource passageways in most participants. The significance of time and social support in both constructs was also highlighted. Originality/value: This research contributes to the literature by emphasising the importance of considering both regulatory mode and COR in understanding an individual's self-regulation and resource situation. These findings provide insights into the specific resources and their impact on assessment and locomotion tendencies. This study also highlights the role of time and social support in the lives of parent carers. These findings can inform practical approaches to support parents caring for children with long-term illnesses.
An exploration of employee trust and belonging for those working in a PIE
Introduction In the current climate of economic uncertainty where many employers are seeking to recruit in a tight labour market (CIPD 2022) retaining and ensuring the engagement of employees is paramount. The importance of understanding what motivates and engages employees to ensure retention and high-performance working is of particular interest to those working in adult social care where recruitment is extremely challenging. In October 2022 Skills for Care reported that there were 165,000 vacant posts in adult social care. This study will investigate whether working in a psychologically informed environment can have a positive impact, not only on service-users in adult social care (Benson & Brennan, 2018) but also on employees resulting in higher levels of engagement. Relevance and Impact of Research This research will centre on three organisations within the Liverpool City Region whose focus is working with vulnerable people in adult social care and supported housing. The three companies are at different stages of implementing trauma informed care (McNally et al., 2022) and working within a psychologically informed environment (Benson & Brennan, 2018). However, if there is a positive impact how employees trust and feel that they belong to the organisations when they work in this way, there is potential for adapting a psychological working environment to other employers whose business involves employees dealing with challenging service-users or customers. Literature Review While there has been research undertaken into the impact a psychologically informed environment has on service-users (Phipps et al., 2017; Schneider et al., 2022), there has been little or no research on the impact that working in this way has on employees, particularly those working to support vulnerable people with complex mental health conditions who can present significant challenges. Benson & Brennan (2018) refer to a psychologically informed environment as a place where the overall approach is holistic and considers the psychological and emotional needs of service users. Many of the people who experience homelessness have suffered complex trauma in their lives which in turn can have a negative impact on that person’s thoughts, feelings, behaviour, and self-image (Thompson et al., 2013). For front line support workers, working in this environment can be challenging, both in terms of the actual work but also through the impact on them as individuals (Schneider et al., 2022). There is evidence that employees working in this sector have a deep motivation and compassion to seek job satisfaction through helping those who are vulnerable and disadvantaged (Ferris et al., 2016; Kulkarni et al., 2013; Writh et al., 2019). However, this can lead to high levels of emotional exhaustion (Stalker et al., 2007) and the potential for front-line workers to suffer secondary traumatic stress (Figley, 2002; Bride et al., 2004), which in turn could potentially leave employees vulnerable to stress and burn out (Maslach, 2003; Ferris et al 2016). Having identified the potential vulnerability of employees whose main focus is supporting vulnerable people in these challenging environments Ferris et al. (2016) termed this “the Florence Nightingale effect”. They put forward the proposition that recognising the significant challenges that service-users face could potentially increase job satisfaction and reduce burnout for those employees when they have a shared solidarity with their colleagues and have a strong identification with the organisation in which they work. The suggestion by Ferris et al. (2016) is that identifying with the organisation gives employees an additional resource to deal with the challenges they face together with other colleagues, leading to increased positivity in workplace outcomes. Other areas considered in the literature review for this study will be the concept of reflective practice (Schon, 1994), employee engagement (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008) and trust and belonging (Searle et al., 2011). Theoretical Basis Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger 1957) provides a theoretical basis for this research. This theory has been applied to support the understanding of workplace issues related to organisational behaviour (Bhave & Glomb, 2016). The proposition that employees who support adults with challenging and complex behaviour may have increased job satisfaction (Ferris et al., 2016) in an environment where there are potential negative effects on both physical and psychological well-being (Robinson, 2014) could be an example of how employees overcome the cognitive discrepancy i.e. the dissonance of the working situation (Hinojosa et al., 2017). A further theory applied to this research is organisational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986) which is based on social exchange theory (Homans, 1961) and ideas of reciprocal behaviour. When an organisation values and treats its employees with respect, they will in turn increase their commitment towards that organisation (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades, Eisenberger & Armeli, 2001). Research Design Initially, it was proposed that this research followed a mixed methods design which is consistent with a pragmatic approach (Biesta, 2010). However, as it is intended to explore the feelings and experience of people working in a psychologically informed environment and whether this does impact on trust and belonging, it was felt that a subjective ontological approach (Cassell et al., 2019) alongside an interpretivist epistemological approach (Grix, 2019) was more appropriate to the study. Having identified the philosophical approach, the methodology for conducting research for this study will take a qualitative approach (Scotland, 2012) and will help with understanding the experience and beliefs of those working within a psychologically informed environment (Wisker, 2007) Research Method It is proposed that the research will be undertaken using semi-structured interviews (Di-Cicco-Bloom and Crabtree, 2006) and focus groups (Jackson, Drummond & Camara, 2007). A pilot focus group has already been facilitated with thematic analysis utilised to analyse the data collected (Kiger & Varpio, 2020). This pilot focus group will be used as a point of reflection to inform the rest of the study. References Bakker, A.B. & Schaufeli, W.B. (2008). Positive organizational behavior: Engaged employees in flourishing organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 29(2), pp.147-154. Benson, J. & Brennan, M., (2018), Keyworkers’ experiences and perceptions of using psychological approaches with people experiencing homelessness, Housing Care and Support, 51-53, 21(2) Bhave, D. P., & Glomb, T. M. (2016). The Role of Occupational Emotional Labor Requirements on the Surface Acting-Job Satisfaction Relationship. Journal of Management, 42(3), 722-741. Biesta, G., (2010), Pragmatism and the Philosophical Foundations of Mixed Methods Research Cassell, C., Cunliffe, A., & Grandy, G. (2018) The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Business and Management Research Methods: Methods and Challenges, Sage, London CIPD (2022), Understanding the economy and labour market https://www.cipd.co.uk/knowledge/work/trends/economy-labour-market-factsheet#8362 [accessed: 7th November 2023] DiCicco-Bloom, B. & Crabtree, B.F. (2006) ‘The qualitative research interview’, Medical Education, 40(4), pp.314-321. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison S. & Sowa, D. (1986) Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology 71: 500-507. Ferris, L.J., Jetten, J., Johnstone, M., Girdham, E., Parsell, C. & Walter, Z.C. (2016) The Florence Nightingale effect: Organizational identification explains the peculiar link between others’ suffering and workplace functioning in the homelessness sector. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, p.16. Festinger, L. (1962) A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford university press. Grix, J. (2019) The Foundations of Research, 3rd edition, Red Globe Press, London Harmon-Jones, E. & Harmon-Jones, C. (2007) Cognitive dissonance theory after 50 years of development. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 38(1), pp.7-16. Hinojosa, A. S., Gardner, W. L., Walker, H. J., Cogliser, C., & Gullifor, D. (2017). A Review of Cognitive Dissonance Theory in Management Research: Opportunities for Further Development. Journal of Management, 43(1), 170-199 Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior: Its elementary forms . New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Jackson, R., Drummond, D. & Camara S. (2007) What is Qualitative Research, Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 8(1), pp.21-28 Kiger, M. & Varpio, L. (2020) Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE Guide No. 131, Medical Teacher, 42(8), pp.846-854 Maslach, C. (2003). Job Burnout: New Directions in Research and Intervention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(5), 189-192. McNally, P., Irvine, M., Taggart, L., Shevlin, M., & Keesler, J. (2022). Exploring the knowledge base of trauma and trauma informed care of staff working in community residential accommodation for adults with an intellectual disability. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 35( 5), 1162- 1173. Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (2001) Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support, Journal of Applied Psychology 86: 825-836. Robinson, K., 2014. Voices from the front line: Social work with refugees and asylum seekers in Australia and the UK. British Journal of social work, 44(6), pp.1602-1620. Schön, D.A. (1994), The Reflective Practitioner : How Professionals Think in Action, Taylor & Francis Group Searle, R., Hartog, D.N.D., Weibel, A., Gillespie, N., Six, F., Hatzakis, T. & Skinner, D., (2011) , Trust in the employer: the role of high-involvement work practices and procedural justice in European organizations, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22:5, 1069-1092, Shannon-Baker, P. (2016). Making Paradigms Meaningful in Mixed Methods Research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 10(4), 319-33 Skills for Care (2022), The state of the adult social care sector and workforce in England https://www.skillsforcare.org.uk/adult-social-care-workforce-data/Workforce-intelligence/publications/national-information/The-state-of-the-adult-social-care-sector-and-workforce-in-England.aspx [accessed: 7th November 2023] Wisker, G. (2008), The Postgraduate Research Handbook : Succeed with Your MA, MPhil, EdD and PhD. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan